Cortisol is a steroid produced by the adrenal glands and is used in the body to respond to physical and emotional stress and to maintain adequate energy supply and blood sugar levels. Cortisol production is highly regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) through a complex set of direct influences and negative feedback interactions. In healthy individuals, insufficient cortisol in the bloodstream triggers the hypothalamus to release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) which signals to the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the adrenal glands to produce more cortisol. Excessive cortisol inhibits hypothalamus from producing CRH, thus inhibiting the pituitary gland from releasing ACTH, which in turn suppresses cortisol production. The HPA regulation also results in a diurnal rhythm of cortisol levels, reaching peaks in the morning and nadirs around midnight. Pathological conditions associated with the HPA can affect the diurnal rhythm of the cortisol and ACTH production and cause serious health problems.
The biologic effects of cortisol, including those caused by hypercortisolemia, can be modulated at the GR level using receptor modulators, such as agonists, partial agonists and antagonists. Several different classes of agents are able to block the physiologic effects of GR-agonist binding. These antagonists include compositions which, by binding to GR, block the ability of an agonist to effectively bind to and/or activate the GR. One such known GR antagonist, mifepristone, has been found to be an effective anti-glucocorticoid agent in humans (Bertagna (1984) J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 59:25). Mifepristone binds to the GR with high affinity, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of 10−9 M (Cadepond (1997) Annu. Rev. Med. 48:129).
A variety of disease states are capable of being treated with glucocorticoid receptor modulators, including, e.g., mifepristone; glucocorticoid receptor modulators (e.g, glucocorticoid receptor antagonists) disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,928,237 and in U.S. Pat. No. 8,461,172; glucocorticoid receptor modulators disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,685,973; glucocorticoid receptor modulators disclosed in U.S. Patent Publication 2014/0038926 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,859,774); and other glucocorticoid receptor modulators. Exemplary disease states include major psychotic depression, mild cognitive impairment, psychosis, dementia, hyperglycemia, stress disorders, antipsychotic induced weight gain, delirium, cognitive impairment in depressed patients, cognitive deterioration in individuals with Down's syndrome, psychosis associated with interferon-alpha therapy, chronic pain (e.g. pain associate with gastroesophageal reflux disease), postpartum psychosis, postpartum depression, neurological disorders in premature infants, migraine headaches, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, Syndrome X, depression, anxiety, glaucoma, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), neurodegeneration (e.g. Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease), cognition enhancement, Cushing's Syndrome, Addison's Disease, osteoporosis, frailty, inflammatory diseases (e.g., osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma and rhinitis), adrenal function-related ailments, viral infection, immunodeficiency, immunomodulation, autoimmune diseases, allergies, wound healing, compulsive behavior, multi-drug resistance, addiction, psychosis, anorexia, cachexia, post-traumatic stress syndrome post-surgical bone fracture, medical catabolism, and muscle frailty. The methods of treatment include administering to a patient in need of such treatment, a therapeutically effective amount of a glucocorticoid receptor modulator compound.
Cushing's syndrome is one of these problems. Patients having Cushing's syndrome usually have easy bruising; abdominal obesity and thin arms and legs; facial plethora; acne; proximal muscle weakness; and/or red purple stripes across the body. Cushing's syndrome is accompanied by hypercortisolemia, a condition involving a prolonged excess of circulating cortisol. Cushing's syndrome can be classified as exogenous Cushing's syndrome, which is caused by excess use of glucocorticoids drugs, such as prednisone, dexamethasone, and hydrocortisone, and endogenous Cushing's syndrome, which is caused by deregulatory abnormalities in the HPA axis. Endogenous Cushing's syndrome consists of the ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome, characterized by an overproduction of cortisol in the absence of elevation of ACTH secretion; the ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome, characterized by excessive ACTH secretion.
ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome includes roughly 80% of patients having endogenous Cushing's syndrome and consists of two major forms: Cushing Disease and ectopic ACTH syndrome. The former is caused by a pituitary tumor and the latter is caused by a tumor outside the pituitary. Correct differential diagnosis between the Cushing Disease and ectopic ACTH syndrome is important for endocrinologists to recommend transphenoidal surgery or appropriate imaging to identify source of the ectopic ACTH secretion.
One current approach of differentially diagnosing patients with ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome involves measuring ACTH levels from samples obtained simultaneously from both inferior petrosal venous sinus (IPS)— a procedure referred to as inferior petrosal venous sinus sampling (IPSS)—and from the internal jugular or another peripheral vein. In one approach, referred herein as CRH-IPSS, 5 blood samples are taken from each IPS and the internal jugular vein, two before and three after administration of CRH. A central-to-periphery ACTH ratio of >2 before and >3 after the administration of CRH is consistent with Cushing Disease while a lower ratio favors ectopic ACTH syndrome. This procedure requires prolonged catheterization with the likelihood of infection, thrombosis, or bleeding rising with the duration of catheterization. In addition CRH is a protein which is expensive to produce, causing a shortage in supply between 2011 and early 2013, and requires sophisticated handling. Thus, the results from CRH-IPSS for differentially diagnosing patients with ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome often fall in the gray area. Desmopressin acetate (DDAVP), the alternative to CRH, which has also been used for IPSS, has similar disadvantages.
Another approach, referred to herein as metyrapone-IPSS, is similar to the one above, except that metyrapone instead of CRH is administered to the patient before IPSS and that samples are only taken from the patients after the metyrapone administration. Although metyrapone-IPSS improves the CRH-IPSS—since it dispenses with the need for sampling before the administration of metyrapone, and thus reduces the duration of catheterization and likelihood of infection, thrombis, or bleeding associated therewith—it also has serious limitations. First, metyrapone acts to block the conversion of 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol by 11β-hydroxylase, causing a decrease in cortisol level, which in turn stimulates ACTH production and release. Since its effect on the ACTH secretion is indirect, the test result may be skewed by other factors affecting the cortisol synthesis. Second, as a cortisol synthesis blocker, treatment of metyrapone—especially at a high dose—may result in adrenal insufficiency or have deleterious effects on various normal bodily functions that require cortisol—for example, the anti-stress and anti-inflammation functions. Third, metyrapone is currently not available in the United States, consequently this diagnosis method is out of reach for many patients in this country.